The production, use and disposal of textiles are important considerations when assessing environmental impact of textiles. Some materials are often wrongly presumed to be more eco-friendly simply due to their “natural” state, by not being man-made or synthetic. However, out in the field can sometimes be just as hazardous as inside the factory, with pesticides sprayed on the growing cotton or on the pasture, sheep dipped in a cocktail of toxic chemicals, and the raw product then bleached, tanned or dyed with synthetic and toxic chemicals.

In both stages of production, prior to and during, the use of synthetic chemicals can be dramatically reduced, ensuring benefits to both the environment and to humans. Of course it would not be right to dismiss out of hand synthetic man-made materials – their environmental impact can be lesser, say, in terms of water needed for production. Man-made materials use substantially less water than, for instance, cotton does.

But disposal after production is of course an important consideration: sometimes synthetic materials or textiles that have been treated with various synthetic chemicals, pesticides, dyes and preservatives are unable to biodegrade, which results in further contamination.

Here, we seek to promote a less environmentally damaging textile, be it through the choice of purer fibres, cleaner methods of production or the salvaging of the old.

Alpaca

The Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) is one of two domesticated breeds of South American camel-like ungulates, derived from the wild guanaco. Alpacas are kept in large flocks that graze on the level heights of the Andes of southern Peru, northern Bolivia, and northern Chile. Thus, they are not subject to the chemical exposure that intensively reared sheep are.

They are valued for their luxurious fibre which comes in 22 natural colours. Alpaca fibre is stronger, lighter and more resilient than wool and is hypoallergenic. It is treasured for it’s incredible softness and warmth, and it is finer than cashmere. Due to it’s expansive colour spectrum, the fibre is often used undyed or coloured with the use of vegetable dyes. Limited Alpaca breeding now takes place in the UK.

Bamboo

Bamboo is technically a grass which forms a very hard wood that is light and exceptionally tough. Established bamboo will send up shoots that grow to their full height in a single season, making it the fastest growing woody plant (some species growing up to 30 cm a day) and is therefore wonderfully prolific, versatile and regenerative. Bamboo is used in the production of an extensive variety of products from household utensils as well as being spun into a luxurious silken-like textile. Bamboo fibre has natural anti-bacterial properties and is biodegradable.

Biodegradable

A biodegradable product has the ability to break down, safely and relatively quickly, by biological means, into the raw materials of nature and disappear into the environment. These products can be solids biodegrading into the soil (compostable), or liquids biodegrading into water.

Sustainable disposal of any product requires that its wastes return to the earth and are able to biodegrade. Given the right conditions, nature biodegrades everything it makes back into basic building blocks, so that new living things can be made from the old. Every resource made by nature returns to nature: plants and animals biodegrade, even raw crude oil will degrade when exposed to water, air, and the necessary salts.

By the time many resources are turned into products, however, they have been altered by industry in such a way that they are unrecognizable to the microorganisms and enzymes that return natural materials to their basic building blocks. Crude oil, for example, will biodegrade in its natural state, but once it is turned into plastic, it becomes an unsustainable pollution problem.

Conventional plastic does not biodegrade, it photodegrades. This means that plastic breaks down into smaller and smaller toxic bits which continue to leach chemicals that contaminate soil and waterways and enter the food chain which fish and animals then accidentally ingest. Each plastic bag takes over 500 years to break down – 500 years of leaching toxins. Instead of returning to the cycle of life, these products simply pollute and litter our land, air, and water. See Polyvinylchloride (PVC) below for further details about plastic.

Bleach

The use of chlorine compounds to bleach paper or textiles produces dioxins as a by-product, a toxic chemical that pollutes the air, water, soil, and food chain. Once released, these chemicals persist in the environment, spread through the food chain, accumulate in fatty tissues and disrupt, mimic, and block the hormone systems of living organisms.

Less environmentally damaging solutions to bleaching are the low impact use of either hydrogen peroxide or oxygen bleach. Both are chlorine-free solutions using fairly benign chemical processes which produce no dioxins, chloroform or hydrochloric acids. Chlorine free bleaching produces recyclable bleach plant wastewaters and allows mills to “close the loop” on its water discharge.

Cotton

Cotton is the second most pesticide-laden crop in the world, with the majority of pesticides used on cotton (cyanide, dicofol, naled, propargite and trifluralin) known to be cancer causing chemicals. 17 tablespoons of chemicals are used to grow enough cotton to make just one t-shirt. Conventional cotton represents but three percent of the world’s crops, yet it is doused with 25% of all pesticides and 11% of all herbicides.

Organic cotton is free from all chemical treatments including pesticides, herbicides, artificial growth regulators, defoliants or other agro-chemicals. No post harvesting treatments such as bleaching, anti-inflammatory and anti-moth repellents are applied. Organic farming methods produce healthier fabrics, preserve the quality of our water and prevent toxins from entering the human food chain in the form of cottonseed and other byproducts. Certified organic cotton is soft, cool and luxurious. For further information on organic cotton, please refer to the Directory for Organic Cotton. Some of our organic cotton is from fair trade sources; where it is it is also stated.

Dye

Synthetic dyes are extensively used in the textile, leather and printing industries. During the dyeing process, about 30% or more of the reactive dyes used are hydrolysed and later released into waterways. Although these dyes are not in themselves toxic, after release into the aquatic environment they may be converted into potentially carcinogenic amines. Existing technologies are often ineffective at removing residual dyes present in wastewater.

Dying is also water intensive. The multi-step dyeing and printing of textiles and leather, which invariably includes several wash baths, involves large water consumption. In order to comply with national and EU legislation dyehouses need to send waste water to local treatment stations. The average specific water consumption for a dyeing and printing company may be as high as 400 L/kg.

The use of low impact dye has clear environmental and health benefits. Low impact dying means that the material has not been subject to heavy metals and Azo’s in the dying process. Azo dyes are a class of synthetic dyes which can be broken down into harmful aryl amines that are carcinogenic.

Where possible our textiles and leather adhere to either dyeing processes that are limited in some manner or form; either by avoiding synthetic Azo dyes, applying dyes that have lower impact, or choosing dyes that are accredited as environmentally acceptable. Closed loop production, where water is recycled and the level of pollution is small, is also preferable. Better still for the environment, is the avoidance of any dye, leaving the textile in it’s natural colour state. Please also see Leather, below, for further details.

Felt

Felt is not woven or knitted but is a constructed fabric: the earliest known to humans. Felt can be made by machine or hand and is made from tangled wool fibres (merino wool is best for felting due to it’s high quality, durability and softness) that are subjected to a combination of heat, moisture, friction and pressure which causes the fibres to matt together. It is the wool’s natural waxy coating which gives felt it’s water-resistant quality.

However, felt is often sourced from wool that has been exposed to pesticides, formaldehyde, polyester, foams, dioxins and other additives. The dying of felt, can like all dying processes, be synthetically and chemically intensive. That is why we have sourced our felt products from companies who ensure that their felt is from a purer source, or has been subject to the limitations imposed by eco-labelling. Please refer to Wool, below, for further information.

Jute

Predominantly grown in India, the jute plant is derived from a relative of hemp and can be grown in 4-6 months with a huge amount of cellulose being produced from the jute stem. Jute is the major crop among others that is able to protect deforestation by industrialisation. It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and ensures better breathability of fabrics. As a result, jute is very suitable for industrial yarn, fabric, net, and sacks. It is one of the most versatile natural fibres that has been used in raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-textile, construction, and agricultural sectors.

Leather

Many chemicals are used during the tanning process for removing hair and for liming, deliming, dyeing, tanning and curing. The most damaging chemicals used are chromium 3 & 6, which are carcinogenic. Chromium 6 has been shown to rub off leather and enter the skin when we sweat.

Investigations into tanneries in India revealed extensive chromium contamination of soils, surface water and groundwater and the elevated incidence of leukaemia in children who lived near a site where tannery waste was dumped. In Denmark and Italy, the incidence of cancer was found to be 20% to 50% higher in tannery workers.

Tanneries are traditionally built close to rivers for ease of discharge. However, the discharge of tannery wastewater can be toxic to aquatic life and cause long-term damage to the environment. Now, most tanneries have shifted operations worldwide from developed to undeveloped nations, where labour is cheap and environmental regulations are lax.

The starting point is for closed loop (in closed loop production water is recycled and the level of pollutant is small), chromium-free, plant dyed tanning. Tannins of plant origin, such as Mimosa bark, are environmentally friendly and biodegradable. To read more about dying processes, please see Dye above.

Linen

Elegant, beautiful, durable, this luxury fabric is the strongest of the vegetable fibres and has 2 to 3 times the strength of cotton. It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint free and ensures that it only gets softer and finer the more it is washed. Linen comes from flax, a bast fibre taken from the stalk of the plant. The lustre is from the natural wax content, with it’s colour ranging from creamy white to light tan. Linen does wrinkle but also presses easily when damp. Linen, like cotton, can also be boiled without damaging the fibre.

Up until the mid-twentieth century the finest linen yarns were made in Scotland, Ireland, Holland, Northern France, and Belgium. Now, most of the factories in those areas are closed and most linen is currently made in China.

The decrease in use of linen may be attributed to the industrialisation of cotton production (a cheaper fibre), the increasing quality of synthetic fibers, and a decreasing appreciation of buyers for very high quality yarn and fabric. Very little top quality linen is produced now, and most is used in low volume applications like hand weaving, as an art material, or table and bed linens.

Although the actual growing of linen is free of the extensive spraying and use of pesticides used on cotton, it is the production process that can be environmentally damaging – the extensive water consumption and the chemicals and mordants used in the dying process. Our Eco linen is of the highest grade, is hand loomed in Latvia and is undyed. It is bleached using low impact hydrogen peroxide rather than chlorine. See also Dye and Bleach, above, for further details.

Polyvinylchloride (PVC)

PVC is the one of worst plastic substances for both the environment and our health. PVC is prevalent in most modern home furnishings and gives off toxins which can cause cancer, birth defects and damage to the reproductive, immune and endocrine systems. PVC is to be found in wallpaper, window frames, blinds, flooring, waterpipes, laminated furniture, vinyl flooring, carpet backing, plastic bottles, shower curtains and children’s plastic toys.

Research has shown that, from production to consumption, PVC along with polystyrene are the plastics that cause most environmental damage. Many of PVC’s basic chemicals, such as Ethylene Dichloride and Vinyl Chloride are considered to be not only carcinogenic, but also triggers for other health problems such as liver, kidney and neurological damage. Dioxins are released into the atmosphere when PVC is disposed of. Thus, the problem is not so much the production of these chemicals but their release into the environment.

Recycled

The average household in Britain generates 600 kg of waste per year (11.5 kg per week); the total waste generated nationally is 380 million tonnes per year.

Of this, 500,000 tons of unwanted clothing ends up in landfill each year.

Almost 5 million tonnes of waste paper are sent to landfill or incineration each year.

In 2004 the UK generated 475,232 tonnes of waste tyres. Only 12% of used tyres went to landfill, but this still represented 58,797 tonnes of material, which will need a home when the European Landfill Directive, banning landfill disposal of shredded tyres, is implemented in July 2006.

The process of collecting, processing, remanufacturing, and reusing some of these materials instead of discarding them is gaining ever wider acceptance and importance. In this way, raw materials are conserved as well as the energy that manufacturers would use in producing new products. Recycling reduces the amount of material going into landfills as well as reducing the pollution that results from waste disposal.

Surplus Material

We like leftovers. Surplus material or fabric is left over from another manufacturer’s production. These materials would be discarded or left to rot if creative designers and manufacturers didn’t sweep them up and turn them into things you want. By utilizing surplus material we are reducing waste, saving resources and consuming less of the earth’s natural resources.

Vintage

Vintage materials, although often impossible to determine with any precision their eco-footprint in terms of pre-production and production, can be put to good use. By re-establishing them in a new context, often beautiful materials can be enjoyed yet again. The incorporation and use of vintage textiles is a celebration the reduce, reuse, recycle ethos which in turn encourages re-evaluation of worth.

Wool

Indigenous to the UK, sheep have been reared for their wool for centuries. It is only over the past 30 years that modern farming practices introduced chemically intensive processes, such as compulsory sheep dipping to protect sheep against external parasites.

The human cost of sheep dipping, the adverse health and environmental effects resulting from the exposure of operators and others to organophosphate active ingredients in the dips, is only now being recognised.

Organophosphate compounds (OPs) were originally developed as chemical warfare agents because of their action in inhibiting blood cholinesterase activity: this means that in effect they can cause continual and uncontrolled stimulation of organs and muscles. The World Health Organisation estimates that there are about 3 million acute severe incidents of pesticide poisoning every year. Up to half of these may be due to OPs. Long-term effects neurological effects have been demonstrated following exposure to pesticides containing OP active ingredients.

Unlike wool that is treated conventionally, organic wool is free from pesticides, formaldehyde, polyester, foams, dioxins and other additives. Sheep are reared on pesticide-free land, and are not subjected to dipping. Organic wool is cleaned with bio-degradable agents before being carded and spun at a certified-organic mill. The wool responds well to natural dyes and is an ecologically sound natural fibre.

For more information on organic wool see thenaturalfibre.co.uk.